Literature review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Literature review - Essay Example Ancient Western viewpoint Intellectually In the early period of the High Middle Ages, the Islamic communities had greatly contributed to the intellectual growth of the European people. Goddard (2000) stated that the medieval Muslim scholars (e.g., Averroes) had translated into Arabic language the scientific ideas and philosophies of the Greeks such as Aristotle (Goddard, 2000: 97). He further noted that it was in the eleventh century that the Europeans were able to obtain, translate, and read the works of the Greek scientists and philosophers via their Arabic version. Goddard (2000) said that there were two specific European locations wherein the readings and translations of the Arabic texts of the Greek intellectuals were made: Spain and Sicily. By and large, Muslims were viewed by the medieval Christians, based from Goddard’s analysis, as transmitters of scientific knowledge and intellectual tradition (Goddard, 2000: 98). Economically Moreover, Glick (2005) said that the Isl amic communities had greatly shaped the notion and praxis of urbanization for the pre-11th century European people. Prior to A.D. 1000, the administration of justice practiced by the Christian nation-state of Iberian descent was â€Å"dispersed among a multiplicity† of institutions or courts throughout the land (Glick, 2005: 113). In contrast, the administration of justice prominent in Islamic communities was remarkably concentrated in the al-Andalus towns. With respect to urban practices, the influence of Muslims to the medieval Iberian Christians took place when the former created the al-Andalus region as an international market in the 8th-century period. Here, European Christians perceived Muslims as civilized people with highly organized activities pertaining to urban function. Glick’s reading of medieval Spanish urbanization significantly viewed Islam as the promoter of civilization as we know it today: concentrated at the center. Theologically In spite of the con tributions of Islam to the preservation and institution of knowledge and urbanization, the European elite had attempted to demonize, and eventually succeeded in demonizing, the expanding Muslim communities. Tolan (1996), p.xv) described how Peter the Venerable, a Christian abbot of Cluny, travelled to Spain in order to meet and convince its king for a sinister plot of attacking Islam (Tolan, 1996: xv). The abbot of Cluny conceived a plan to rationally criticize the ideas and teachings characterized in the Islamic faith; through the aid of the king of Castile and Leon, Peter the Venerable created a team of translators with the main task of translating the Qur’an and other Islamic texts from Arabic to Latin language (Tolan, 1996). Thence, Christian scholars attacked the philosophy or ideas prominent in the Islamic texts. In the process, they perceived the Muslims as akin to pagans or heretics (Lumbard, 2009: 156). Militarily In the Early Middle Ages, it must be noted that Islam was not highly considered by the medieval Christians as a religion in

Research essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Research - Essay Example This article discusses whether the drinking age of alcohol in the US should be lowered from 21 to 18 years. Alcohol is made when fruits, grains or vegetables are fermented. This process uses yeast or certain types of bacteria to convert the sugars used in the foods into alcohol. This process means that alcohol is a natural product that should not raise concern on the need for its use to the people. Alcohol that is taken is absorbed in the bloodstream of the individual and thus affects the central nervous system that includes the brain, and the spinal cord. The central nervous system is important since it controls practically all body functions. At 18 years, the human brain of the teenager is still in the developing stage, which means that drinking at this stage can have severe effects in the future of the individual. Alcohol is a known depressant and at the age of 18 years, it slows the functioning of the central nervous system. At 18 years, alcohol consumed actually blocks some of t he messages trying to get to the brain. This in turn changes an individual's perceptions, sentiments, movement, hallucination and hearing (Cima 2). United States recognizes 18 as the official adult age. At this age, people should be allowed to make their own decision about alcohol consumption. When an individual turns 18 years, they are allowed to receive the rights and responsibilities of an adult such as voting, smoking cigarettes, serve on adjudicators, marry or get married, sign legal contracts, can be prosecuted as grown person, and are allowed to join the military that takes into account risking an individual’s life. Lowering the recommended drinking age from 21 to 18 years would allow more people especially those between the ages of 18 to 20 years to take alcohol in a safer manner in regulated environments without supervision. When the government prohibits this age group from drinking in public places such as restaurants, bars, and other licensed locations, they will d rink in unrestricted places such as fraternity houses or house parties, places where they may be exposed to binge drinking and other unsafe behaviors. Taking alcohol in fraternity houses is dangerous since people in these social places tend to engage in games such as excessive alcohol drinking games, speedy drinking of alcohol that puts persons at risk of acquiring alcohol poisoning which can be fatal (Cochran 2). Most road accidents occur during the first few years of legal drinking regardless of the drinking age. According to the traffic act of the United States and the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, the age bracket between the ages of 21-24 years had the most number of involvements in road accidents while drunk. Majority of the victims had blood alcohol concentrations of more than 0.08, comprising of more than 35%. In order to offset these traffic accident fraternities by 21%, the legal age for drinking alcohol should be lowered from the ages of 21 to 18years. Comparative research shows that countries with the recommended drinking age of 18 years have lower number of traffic accidents caused by drunken driving (The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University 1). If the recommended alcohol drinking age were lowered from 21 to 18 years, it would make consumption of alcohol less of a taboo for grownups’ that are newly joining college and the workforce. Moreover,